The Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, formerly French colony, gained independence in 1962, following e war against France. The population of 28.5 million 995 estimate) is of Arab, Berber or mixed Arab-Berber ancestry. After 1962, the majority of the one million Europeans resident in Algeria left the country, and now s than one percent of the population is of European origin.

A diglossic situation exists in Algeria, as in other Arabic-speaking countries. Modern Standard Arabic is the official language, used in public, official, formal and written contexts, while colloquial dialects of Arabic are spoken s a mother tongue and used in informal contexts by the majority of the population. (Classical Arabic is the language of Islamic worship.) Most of the remainder of the population speak dialects of Berber, the original indigenous language of a large part of North Africa. There are no accurate figures for the numbers of Berber speakers, since e language has no official status. Estimates for the number of speakers range at between 13 percent and 42 percent of the total population. Almost all Berber speakers also speak Arabic and thus are classed as Arabic speakers. Since 1988, Berber has received some government support. Two newspapers in Berber exist and there is news in Berber on television twice a day. Also, cultural societies and centers have been established to promote the teaching and popularization of Berber language and culture.

French still enjoys a high status in Algeria. It is a major foreign language and is still widely read and spoken by many educated Algerians. National radio has a French station. The only TV channel is in Arabic with some French material. The majority of newspapers and magazines are in French, and French is widely used in higher education. Scientific material in school and university text books is almost exclusively in French, while Arabic is the medium of primary education. A law to Arabize local administration, business, politics and the media from July, 1992 was postponed indefinitely, because it was felt that the necessary conditions for adequate implementation of the law did not yet exist. English is also a recognized foreign language in Algeria and is gaining in prestige.

The People's Republic of Angola was formerly part of Portuguese West Africa. The country gained independence from Portugal in 1975 after 14 years of guerrilla warfare and a brutal civil war. The population in 1995 was estimated at 10 million. Because of the devastation and social unrest caused by sporadic warfare since independence, it is not easy to assess the language situation in Angola. It is estimated that there are more than 90 ethnic groups in Angola, and numerous local languages are spoken. Over 90 percent of the population speak Bantu languages. There are three major ethnolinguistic groups, the Ovimbundu (37 percent) in the central and southern regions, the Kimbundu (25 percent) in Luanda and the east, and the Kikongo (13 percent) in the north.

Portuguese is the official language of the country, used .in the media, government and education, and spoken by younger people and educated people especially in the larger towns of the coastal area. Prolonged contact with African languages has given rise to two-way language borrowing. Local varieties of Portuguese have evolved, heavily influenced by indigenous languages, and the local African languages have borrowed from Portuguese.

Most Portuguese left the country after independence and less than 80,000 remain. In addition, there are about 180,000 mesticos (people of mixed Portuguese-African ancestry). Six African languages have the status of national languages, and are used in adult literacy programs, radio and television. These are Kikongo, Kimbundu, Chokwe, Umbundu, Mbunda-Ngangela and Kwanyama.

Benin

The Republic of Benin is a former French colony, with a population of 5.5 million (1995 estimate). Over 50 language varieties are spoken, some of them closely related with a high degree of mutual intelligibility, and all having equal status as non-official national languages. The four main indigenous languages are Yoruba, Fon, Gen and Bariba. The official language is French, used in government, administration, education and the media. Some television programs are shown in the four main indigenous languages. There are rural radio broadcasts in 18 national languages. Increasing use is being made of national languages in education.

Botswana

The Republic of Botswana has a population of 1.4 million (1995 estimate). A former British Protectorate, it gained its independence in 1966. T\venty five African languages are spoken in Botswana, but the majority language, Setswana, a Bantu language, is the mother tongue of some 85 percent of the population and is spoken as a second language by a further nine percent. Kalanga is spoken by a small minority group (120,000). English and Setswana are the official languages and both are used in the media. Setswana is the medium of instruction in the first years of primary schooling, while English is used thereafter.355

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso, formerly the French colony of Upper Volta, achieved independence in 1960. Burkina Faso has a population of 10.4 million (1995 estimate) and is a country of great ethnic and linguistic diversity. It is estimated that approximately 60 languages are spoken in the country, and 18 have been designated as national languages. Thirteen languages are used on radio together with French, the official language. The three most important languages are Moore (Mossi), spoken as a first or second language by over half the population, mainly in the center of the country; Jula (a Mande variety), spoken in the west; and Fufulde (a variety of Fula), spoken in the east. These three languages are used over a wide area as lingua francas. Inhabitants of large towns tend to be multilingual, while bilingualism in the mother tongue and one of the main lingua francas is common. French, the language of education, government and administration, is only spoken competently by about ten percent of the population.

Burundi

Burundi, formerly administered by Belgium as part of Rwanda-Urundi (see Rwanda), became an independent monarchy in 1962. It has a population of 6.26 million (1995 estimate). French and Rundi (Kirundi) are the two official languages. Rundi is the same language as Rwanda (Kinyarwanda). Rwanda-Rundi is the Bantu language with the greatest number of first language speakers. Rundi is the mother tongue of over 99 percent of the population in Burundi. It is the first language of the Hutu (85 percent), Tutsi (14 percent) and TWa (less than one percent). Only one other recorded language variety exists as a mother tongue in Burundi, namely Hima, spoken by a few thousand speakers. Swahili is spoken as a second language by an estimated ten percent of the population. French is the language of education.

Cameroon

The Republic of Cameroon consists of the former French Cameroons (East Cameroon) and British Cameroons (West Cameroon) which gained independence in 1960 and 1961 respectively. East Cameroon and West Cameroon were joined in 1972. Cameroon, with a population of 13.5 million (1995 estimate), is a multilingual and multiethnic society. It is estimated that there are about 140-150 ethnic groups in Cameroon, speaking numerous languages and dialects, possibly as many as 300. English and French are the official languages, used in government and education, but French predominates, with the use of English being confined to the smaller Western region.

Because of the complex linguistic situation in Cameroon, bilingualism or multilingualism is the norm for the population. No one indigenous language predominates, although three are widely spoken. Fula or Fufulde, spoken in the northern part of the country, has over half a million first language speakers, and is used as a second language by up to four million others. Ewondo, the language of the capital, Yaounde, has over half a million first language speakers, the largest number of native speakers of any Cameroonian language, and is the lingua franca of the central region. Duala has less than 100,000 first language speakers but is widely used as a second language in the western region. However, the main lingua franca of the country is Cameroon Pidgin English. It is spoken predominantly as a second language by approximately two million people in the south-west and north-west provinces, but it is widely used in other areas, particularly major cities. Linguists have identified six major subvarieties of Cameroon Pidgin. Other Cameroonian languages have pidginized versions as second languages, for instance, Ewondo Populaire, a pidginized form of Ewondo spoken around Yaounde.

The fact that the territory of the Cameroon was formerly controlled by Britain and France means that there are varying attitudes towards use of indigenous languages in education. Following the tradition of the French, the government has given little importance to the use of indigenous languages in education. However, in the area of the former British colony, many private schools (usually mission schools) educate children in the local language for at least the first years of primary schooling.

The Canary Islands comprise seven main islands and several smaller islands, most of which are uninhabited. The islands have been in Spanish possession since 1479 and are now divided into two autonomous provinces. The official language and main language of the population of approximately one million is Spanish. The indigenous Berber language has long been extinct.

Cape Verde Islands

The Republic of Cape Verde comprises the Cape Verde Islands, located in the North Atlantic ocean, west of Senegal (not shown on map). The former Portuguese colony gained independence in 1975 and has a total population of about 435,000 (1995 estimate). The majority of the population are of mixed African and European descent and are known as Creoles or mesticos. The official language is Portuguese, but the first language of 70 percent of the population and the main lingua franca is Crioulo, a Portuguese-based Creole. The remainder of the population speak indigenous African languags Balanta or Manjaku.

Central African Republic

Por to independence in 1960, the Central African Republic was a French colony. It is estimated that about 50 indigenous languages are spoken. About 90 percent of the population of over 3.2 million (1995 estimate) also speak Sango, an Ubangi language that spread throughout the country during the colonial era. Sango is spoken as a first language by much of the urban population and second language by almost the entire rural population.

Sango became a national language in 1964 and an official language in 1991. French has been the official language of the Central African Republic since 1959. French is the medium of education in school and an important subject, but few people attain a high level of competence in it. French is used exclusively in written administration but Sango is being increasingly used for official oral communication. Bot French and Sango are used on radio and television but Sango predominates on radio and French on television. Official newspapers are in French. Since 1992, there -has been an official policy of state bilingualism, encouraging the increasing use of Sango, particularly written Sango, in a variety of public spheres, including education.

Chad

The Republic of Chad was formerly a French colony which became independent in 1960. The population (1995 estimate) is 5.6 million. The country is home to numerous ethnic groups speaking over a hundred languages and dialects. Most of these are African languages, but dialects of Arabic are widely spoken in Chad. About half the population speak Arabic as a first or second language. A form of pidginized Arabic is used as a trade language.

Until 1979, French was the only official language, used in education and government. Since 1979, French and Arabic have been joint official languages, but in practice, French continues to be used as the language of administration, the media and the medium of instruction at all levels of education. Some Arabic medium primary schools and institutions of higher education exist, particularly in major urban centers. Chad national radio broadcasts in French, Arabic and eight African languages. All the languages of Chad have equal status as national languages and are used in local administration, regional agricultural training centers and health clinics.

Comoros

The Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros gained its independence in 1975. It was formerly under the joint control of France and Madagascar. The Republic consits of three main islands, Njazidja, Nzwani and Mwali. A fourth island, Mayotte (Mahore), chose to remain under French administration. The Comorian people are of mixed Black African, Malagasy and Arab descent, reflecting the diverse waves of settlers. The official languages are Arabic and French, but the native language of the majority of the population is Comorian or Shafi Islam, a blend of Swahili and Arabic. Comorian is closely related to the Swahili of mainland Africa, but mutual intelligibility between the two is limited. Education at primary and secondary level is through the medium of French. The population is 549,000 (1995 estimate).

The Republic of Congo was a French colony until 1960. The population of 2.5 million consists of numerous ethnic groups, speaking a great variety of languages and dialects. The Kongo peoples constitute about half the population. Other major ethnic groups include the Teke and Sanga. French is the official language, but approximately 60 vernaculars have been recorded.

Nearly all Congolese are at least bilingual, and many are multilingual. Several languages are used as lingua francas and trade languages between ethnic groups. Lingala is widely used in the center and north, and Munukutuba (a Kongo-based creole) is the main lingua franca of the south. Both are widely used on radio and television and also in trade, small businesses and adult literacy programs. Several of the most important indigenous languages possess considerable bodies of literature, including religious literature. French is currently the medium of education at all levels but several indigenous languages are promoted in education.

Djibouti was formerly known as the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas. It became independent in 1977. This small country had an estimated population of 421,000 in 1995. The two principal ethnolinguistic groups are the Afar in the north (about 35 percent of the population) and the Issa in the south (about 45 percent). The latter are closely related to the people of Somalia, and speak a Somali variety which belongs to the northern cluster on which Standard Somali is based. French is the official language of the country, but both Afar and Somali are used on radio and both have the status of written languages. Arabic is spoken by 12 percent of the population, chiefly by traders from Yemen.

The Arab Republic of Egypt has a population of over 62 million (1995 estimate). Most Egyptians are of mixed ancestry, having descended from Arab settlers and the indigenous pre-Arab population. A diglossic situation exists in Egypt, as in other Arabic-speaking countries. Modern Standard Arabic is the official language, used in public, official, formal and written contexts, while colloquial dialects of Arabic are spoken as a mother tongue and used in informal contexts by almost the entire population. (Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an, is used in Islamic worship). The Egyptian Copts, a Christian minority, represent five percent of the population. The Coptic language, the direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language, has ceased to be used as a daily language, and the Copts speak Arabic as their mother tongue. Coptic is still used as a liturgical language in Coptic churches, but Arabic is used for sermons and Bible readings. The Nubians, living south of the Aswan, speak the Nubian language, which is also spoken in the Sudan. There are no official figures but it has been estimated that there may be as many as 250,000 Nubians living in Egypt. Small minorities of Italians, Greeks and Armenians live in the major cities. The 15,000 inhabitants of the Siwa Oasis, near the Libyan border, speak a dialect with a Libyan Berber component.

Egypt counts itself a francophone country, so French is the language of choice, when, for instance, diplomatic invitations are issued. But in practice, English is the dominant second language in the media and education. One prestigious university in Egypt, the American University in Cairo, teaches in English.

Equatorial Guinea

The Republic of Equatorial Guinea, a former Spanish colony, gained its independence in 1968. It consists of a mainland region, Mbini, and five offshore islands. The small country has a population of only 420,000 (1995 estimate) but the linguistic situation is complex and multilingualism is common. Spanish is the official language, used in administration, education and broadcasting. It is also used increasingly as a lingua franca. Six Bantu languages are spoken, and several creoles, notably Pidgin English (Weskos), which is spoken in major towns. French has become increasingly used, because of the influence of neighboring countries.

Eritrea

Eritrea was an Italian colony between 1890 and 1941. It was under British mandate between 1941 and 1951. It was forcibly annexed by Ethiopia in 1962, but regained its independence in 1993. The population in 1995 was estimated at 3.5 million, including one million refugees. The majority are speakers of the Semitic language Tigrinya. The official languages are Tigrinya, Arabic and English.

The Ethiopian government estimated the population of the country at 53.2 million inhabitants in 1993. Two factors in the 1990s contributed to slight population changes in Ethiopia. Due to drought and war, over half a million refugees fled from Sudan and Somalia into Ethiopia by 1990 and as many as 1.5 million Ethiopian refugees had moved to Sudan and Somalia. Also, in 1993, the province of Eritrea gained its independence.

Between 70 and 100 languages are spoken in Ethiopia, with the most linguistic variety in the South West. The main languages are Amharic, Oromo, Tigrinya and Somali, with Amharic as the lingua franca being spoken as a first language by approximately 28 percent of the population and as a second language by a further 40 percent. Amharic is the language of the original inhabitants of Ethiopia, and its predecessor, Ge'ez (sometimes spelt Giiz), is still used as a liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, to which just over half the population belong. A third of Ethiopians are Muslims, using Arabic in their worship.

Ethiopia was relatively untouched by European colonialism, being the only African country that was not colonized by Europeans in the 19th century. This factor, plus the presence of the Ethiopian Orthodox (Coptic) Christian tradition, has affected the linguistic history of the country.

Only a minority of Ethiopians attend formal education (approximately 20 percent attend primary school and 12 percent attend secondary school). Thus languages are often transmitted informally in the community, and in relationships across communities, with many -people becoming bilingual or multilingual without formal education. Bilingualism and multilingualism are the norm in Ethiopia.

Until 1974, Amharic was the sole national and official language, with English also being officially recognized. Amharic tends to be the language of government, the legal code and courts, and is dominant in the mass media. However, since 1974, official policy has acknowledged the equality of all the country's languages and recognized 15 regional languages: Afar, Amharic, Gurage, Hadiyya, Kambatta, Kefa-Mocha, Kunama, Oromo, Saho, sidamo, Silti,Somali,tigre, and Welaita. Sine 1976, there have been mass literacy campaigns in rural areas, using these 15 regional languages. English appears on currency and postage stamps alongside Amharic, but is spoken by only a small educated minority of people.

The 1994 Ethiopian Language Policy

Following internal wars and struggles in Ethiopia, a new language policy was adopted in 1994, attempting to create an ethnically fairer language policy. The new language policy stipulates the role of Amharic and English as well as other indigenous languages in the school curriculum. The new language policy directed that: (1) the language of primary education would be the language of a region. Thus, to a certain extent, mother tongues are allowed in primary education; (2) Amharic would be taught as the lingua franca for communication across Ethiopia; and (3) English would be the medium for secondary and higher education.

This potentially raises the status of local, indigenous mother tongues. The policy also allows such vernaculars to develop writing systems using the Roman Alphabet. Thus, the status of the Ethiopic writing system with its 275 symbols (which is used by most Ethiopians who are literate) has been challenged. The status of mother tongue language and literacy is being raised to try to bring about an accommodation of different ethnic and cultural identities (while also hoping that there will be national cohesiveness and a national identity through the lingua franca).

Since there are between 70 and 100 different languages in Ethiopia, it is not possible to accommodate all minority languages within the primary school system. Many of the minority languages that are used in the primary school initially lack educational materials in mother tongues, and also lack a sufficient number of teachers who can teach in and through these minority languages. Such a multilingual policy, while politically more appropriate, is pragmatically challenging.

The new Ethiopian language policy sees mother tongues having local usage, Amharic being the national language and English the international language. The outcome appears to give English a much greater place in the school system at the expense of Amharic. It may be easier to attain high standards of Amharic oracy and literacy than gaining competence and literacy in English as Amharic has wider usage and more communicative value

in Ethiopia. Promoting English in the school system may also produce an E - nglish-speaking elite, with a social distance between those who are educated in English and the remainder.

A move away from a centralized nation towards regionalism includes trying to give equal treatment for regional languages. However, the multilingual situation of Ethiopia makes for a complexity that makes language planning difficult and constantly disputed.

Gabon

The Gabonese Republic, formerly part of French Equatorial Africa, gained its independence in 1960. The population of 1.1 million (1995 estimate) consists of approximately 40 ethnic groups, speaking over 50 languages or dialects, almost all of the Bantu family. The official language is French, used in government, administration and education. Because no widely spoken lingua francas exist, and because the school attendance rate is high, most individuals have at least some French, and French is increasingly used as a language of wider communication in the country.

Gambia

The Republic of the Gambia has a population of nearly a million (1995 estimate) and is one of Africa's smallest nations. The Gambia was a British colony until 1965. Numerous languages are spoken in the Gambia. The main indigenous language is Mandinka (a Mande language), spoken by about 40 percent of the population, living mainly in rural areas. The Fula are the second largest ethnic group in the Gambia, constituting about 12.5 percent of the population. Fula, like Mandinka, is spoken mainly in the rural areas of the interior.

Bilingualism in Mandinka and Fula is common in these rural areas. Another important language is Wolof. Although the Wolof ethnic group constitute only 12 percent of the population, they are a powerful and prestigious group, living mainly in urban areas on the coast, including Banjul the capital. Iola is the fourth most widely spoken language in the Gambia (6.5 percent). The Iola are almost always bilingual, also speaking Mandinka. Many urban Iola have adapted to other cultures, especially Wolof and Mandinka, and ceased to use their own laneuaee. A small, but economically powerful group are the Aku speakers. Aku is an English-based creole, the language of the freed slaves who settled in Banjul in the 19th century.

English is the official language of the Gambia, and the only language used in schools. Radio Gambia broadcasts news and cultural programs regularly in the main local languages.

Ghana

Ghana, formerly the British Colony of the Gold Coast, became independent in 1957. There are about 75 different ethnic groups in Ghana, and each group speaks a different language or dialect. Much of the population of 17.7 million (1995 estimate) are bilingual or multilingual, especially in urban centers. Most people living in the area where their first language is indigenous speak two, sometimes three languages, while people living out! their 'home' area typically speak three or more. The n important indigenous language is Akan, spoken almost half the population as a first language, and w ly used as a lingua franca.

English is the official language. It is used in governrr the media, large scale commerce and in education. the first three years of primary school, indigenous guages are used to convey the curriculum, with Enj being used thereafter. Twelve major indigenous languages or dialects are officially recognized for us schools: Akan (Asante, Akuapem, and Fante dialc Ewe, Ga, Dangme, Nzema, Gonja, Dagbani, Daj Waale and Kasem. There are some radio and television broadcasts in the major indigenous languages but the majority of broadcasts are in English.

Guinea

The Republic of Guinea was formerly a French colony and became independent in 1958. About 25 different languages are spoken by various ethnic groups in the population of approximately 7.7 million (1995 estimate) main indigenous language is Futa lallon, a variety of Pulaar, spoken by about 40 percent of the population in the central plateau. Maninke (a Mande variety) is spoken by 25 percent in the east. Susu is spoken by nearly 20 percent in the coastal areas. The main languages used as lingua francas are Maninke and Futa Jallon. French is the official language, used in education, the media and in ~overnment and administration. There are eight national languages : Maninke, Susu, Futa Jallon, Kissi, Basari, Loma, Koniagi, Kpelle (also a Mande language).

Guinea-Bissau

The Republic of Guinea-Bissau was formerly a Portuguese colony, but gained its independence in 1974. It consists of the mainland and numerous small offshore islands, most of them part of the Bijagos Archipelago. The population is just over 1. 1 million (1995 estimate), and about two dozen vernacular languages are spoken. three major vernaculars are Balante (the first IanLiage of 32 percent of the population, living mainly in ie center), Fula (spoken natively by 22 percent, mainly the north-east) and Mandinka (a Mande variety, mothr tongue of 14.5 percent of the population, living main~ in the north-east). The official language of Guinea"issau is Portuguese, used in government, the media and education, but Crioulo, a Portuguese-based Creole, is spoken as a lingua franca by most of the population, and as a first language by many children of ethnically mixed marriages. When the country became independent in 1974 there were plans to develop Crioulo as the national language, but there were also fears that it would restrict access to the rest of the world. Bilingualism is common in the mother tongue and one main indigenous language, or in the mother tongue and Crioulo.

The Ivory Coast, a former French colony, became independent in 1960. It has a population of 14.8 million 1995 estimate), including about three million immigrant workers and their families. There are more than 60 ethnic groups, speaking many indigenous languages or dialects.

French is the official language o the Ivory Coast, and the urban areas have been greatly influenced by French culture. In 1990, there were 3.5 million French speakers, nearly one quarter of the population. It is estimated that more than 60 percent of the population have some competence in French. A higher percentage can speak Popular Ivory Coast French,. a kind of pidginized French.

In addition to French, two indigenous languages or language clusters are widely used as lingua francas, Jula (and Mande variety) and Anyin-Baoul6. Jula is the lingua franca of the Mande region where it is spoken by at least 60 percent of the population as a first or second language. Anyin-BaouI6 is spoken in the south-east. It consists of a block of two closely related language varieties.

The Republic of Kenya gained independence from Britain in 1963. The country had an estimated population of .28.8 million in 1995. About 54 language varieties are spoken in Kenya, some closely related. The five largest groups, with more than a million speakers each, are Kikuyu (20 percent), Luo (14 percent), Luyia (13 percent), Kamba (I I percent) and Kalenjin (6 percent). English and Swahili are the official languages of Kenya. About 16 percent of the population have some competence in English. Swahili is spoken as a first language mainly in coastal areas, but is spoken as a second language by almost 70 percent of Kenyans. Bilingualism and multilingualism are most common in urban areas where there is more language contact. Official educational policy is to encourage use of the mother tongue for the first years of primary schooling, thereafter making the transition to English.

Lesotho

Lesotho, formerly Basuto Land, was administered by Britain from 1868 until 1966, when it gained its independence. Nearly all the two million inhabitants of the country (1995 estimate) are ethnic Basothos, and speak Sesotho, a Bantu language. Other Bantu languages such as Zulu and Xhosa are spoken by small minority groups, but speakers of these languages typically speak Sesotho as well.

Sesotho is the medium of education for the first four years of primary school, then English takes over. Since many Basotho have only basic primary education, they remain monolingual in Sesotho. Only a few attain any degree of competence in English. English and Sesotho are the two official languages. English is used in government and administration, but Sesotho is increasingly used in areas such as religion, politics and broadcasting.

Liberia

The Republic of Liberia has its origins in the establishment of settlements in the 1820s by the American Colonization Society for the repatriation of freed African American slaves to Africa. In 1841, Liberia became an independent republic. It comprised the freed slave settlements and neighboring territory inhabited by indigenous African ethnic groups. The population was estimated at three million in 1995.

The linguistic situation in Liberia is diverse. At least 27 language varieties have been identified, grouped as 16 separate languages or clusters of closely related languages. The largest groups are Kpelle (a Mande variety), spoken by 20 percent of the population as a first language, and Bassa, spoken by 14 percent. None of the other languages is spoken as a mother tongue by more than eight percent of the population. Five percent of the population are descendants of the emancipated slaves, and speak an English-based creole called AmericoLiberian. Americo-Liberian is widely used as a lingua franca but has no official status. TWO other languages used as lingua francas are Vai and Mandingo (both Mande varieties). Because of the linguistic diversity of the country, multilingualism is common. Typically a person may speak up to four languages, for example, English (if educated), Americo-Liberian, Vai or Mandingo and the mother tongue.

The official language of Liberia is English, used in the media, government, administration and education. Approximately 20 percent of the population are able to speak English. The indigenous languages are used on radio and in local administration. A program is underway to make use of all indigenous languages as media of instruction in early primary education.

The Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah comprises the former Italian colonies of Tripolitania, Cyrenaic and Fezzan. The country became an independent republic in 1951. The indigenous population is of mixed Berber and Arab ancestry. Arabic is the sole official language, and the native language of the vast majority of the 5.2 million citizens (1995 estimate). An estimated four percent of the population speak dialects of Berber, mainly in the few Berber-speaking villages in the south and west. Berber was the original indigenous language before the arrival of the Arabic-speaking peoples. Fifteen to twenty percent of the population consists of foreign workers and their families.

A diglossic situation exists in Libya, as in many other Arabic-speaking countries. Modern Standard Arabic is used as the official language, in government, public life the media and education. Colloquial Arabic dialects are used in spoken, informal contexts. (Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an, is used in Islamic worship).

In Libya, English has become a most important foreign language. It is used as a means of instruction in science at college and university level. Both English and Italian are used in trade, and are widely understood in major cities, but the period of Italian colonization made little linguistic impact on the population as a whole.

Madagascar

The Democratic Republic of Madagascar comprises the main island of Madagascar and several small islands. It was a French colony until 1960. The vast majority of the population of approximately 13.8 million (1995 estimate) are of mixed Malayo-Indonesian, African and Arabic descent. There are 18 main ethnic groups, comprising 98 percent of the population, but they all speak the same language, Malagasy, a Malayo-Polynesian language, that has been influenced by Bantu languages and by Arabic and French. There are four main minority groups which together number less than 100,000: French, Cormorians, South Asians (most of whom speak Gujarati) and Chinese. Malagasy and French are the official languages. Since independence, the official use of Malagasy has increased. Both Malagasy and French are used as media of instruction in schools and at university. Government publications appear in Malagasy and French, and both languages are used in broadcasting.

Malawi

Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) was under British colonial rule until 1964, when it gained its independence. It is estimated that 13 indigenous languages are spoken in Malawi, The 1966 population census indicated that Chichewa was the majority language, spoken as a native language by 50.2 percent of the population and as a second language by a further 25 percent. The present population is estimated at over 9.6 million (1995), not including refugees.

In 1968, Chichewa and English became official languages of Malawi, while minority languages were still encouraged. Chichewa is the medium of instruction for the first four years of primary education, and is then replaced by English. Chichewa continues to be taught as a compulsory subject. Parliamentary sessions are held in English only. Radio broadcasts are in English and Chichewa. Chichewa is used widely as a lingua franca between people of different ethnic groups, and is gaining ground at the expense of other indigenous langpages. Bilingualism is common in Malawi, as speakers of different languages learn Chichewa at school or work, and also use a mother tongue. Chichewa is the language of adult literacy classes. Chichewa has not yet superseded other indigenous minority languages in the home, but this may happen as inter-ethnic marriages become more common. Trilingualism (English, Chichewa and a minority language) is also common among educated people.

Small British and Indian minorities also live in Malawi. The recent civil war in neighboring Mozambique resulted in the influx of nearly a million Mozambican refugees into Malawi by 1990, speaking indigenous Mozambican languages.

Mali

Mali was a French colony until 1960 and has a population of nearly 9.4 million people (1995). About 20 languages or dialects are spoken in the country. French is the sole official language in Mali, although it is only spoken by about five percent of the population. It is the main language of government and administration, of television and of education. Since the 1980s, four national languages, Fufulde, Songhai, Tamasheq, and Bambara, have been introduced in the first three years of primary education. Bambara, a Mande variety, is the majority language of Mali, and is spoken as a first or second language by 80 percent of Malians. It is gaining ground as a lingua franca and also as a home language at the expense of some other indigenous languages. Both French and Bambara are used on the radio.

Mauritania

The Islamic Republic of Mauritania has a population of 2.26 million (1995 estimate), including an estimated 224,000 Bedouin nomads. Mauritania, formerly part of French West Africa, became independent in 1960. About 80 percent of the population are Moors, of mixed Arab and Berber descent, and speak Hassaniya Arabic, a variety of Arabic which is not easily intelligible to speakers of other colloquial Arabic varieties. The remainder of the population are Black Africans, who mainly speak indigenous African languages. French is widely spoken by educated Black Africans. After independence, there was a long dispute between Moors and Black Africans about whether French should be retained as an official language, but in 1991, Arabic became the sole official language. Three other languages were granted the status of national languages: Soninke, (a Mande variety, spoken by about 30,000), Tbucoule'ur (Pulaar) (spoken by about ,000) and Wolof (spoken by about 120,000). The rber dialect, Zenaga, is spoken among the Bedouins. Since 1988, Arabic has been the medium of instruction in all schools, although this measure was opposed by the French-speaking south. The state radio service broadcasts in Arabic, French and the other national languages. In Mauritania, like other Arabic-speaking countries, a ,diglossic situation exists, with Modern Standard Arabic ~ being used in official life and education, and Hassaniya .Arabic in informal and family contexts.

Mauritius

The population of the island state of Mauritius (just over a million in 1995) consists of the descendants of Arabs, Asians, Africans, and Europeans who settled in the island over centuries. The island was most recently a British colony, gaining its independence in 1968, and English has been the official language since 18 10. French is spoken as a first language by almost ten percent of the population and also used in many official contexts. The main lingua franca is Mauritian Creole, spoken as a first language by 25 percent of the population, and in daily use by over half the population. About 20 other languages are spoken by small minority groups, including European and Asian languages.

Mayotte (Mahore) is one of the four islands of the Comoro archipelago. It is a French overseas territory and the official language is French. Mayotte has a population of about 97,000 (1995 estimate), mainly of mixed Arab, Black African and Swahili descent. Over two-thirds of the population speak Swahili as a first language. Most of the remainder speak Mahorian, a variety of Comorian, a blend of Arabic and Swahili also spoken on the other Comorian islands. A small minority speak a Malagasy dialect.

Morocco

In contemporary Morocco, the majority of the population are of mixed Berber and Arab descent. About 65 percent speak colloquial Moroccan Arabic as a first language. The remaining third are native speakers of Berber dialects living mainly in the mountains. There are three main varieties of Berber which are not always mutually intelligible, Tarifit (north), Tamazight (central areas) and Taselhit (south-west). The majority of Berber speakers also speak Arabic.

The official language of Morocco is Arabic. A diglossic situation exists in the country. Modern Standard Arabic is used in administration, education, mass media, some governmental offices and as a language of wider communication with other Arab countries. Moroccan Arabic is used in informal, oral situations. (As in other Islamic countries, classical Arabic is used in liturgical worship.)

Morocco was administered by France between 1912 and 1956 and French is still widely used in government, commerce and administration. It is studied and used as a teaching medium for over 50 percent of secondary school graduates, and it is the language most used by educated people. Some 15 to 20 percent of the population are estimated to be literate in French, but English, taught in schools as a foreign language, is beginning to gain ground at the expense of French.

Daily newspapers are published in Arabic and French. Part of Morocco, the north and part of the Sahara, was formerly under Spanish control and Spanish is still spoken in these areas.

Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony, gained independence in 1975. Portuguese remains the official language. Mozambique has a population of just over 18 million (1995 estimate). Numerous indigenous African languages exist in Mozambique belonging to the Bantu family. Eighteen Bantu languages have been identified, the largest language groups being Makua (around 7.5 million speakers), Tsonga (around 3.5 million), Sena (around 1.5 million) and Nyungwe (around one million). Only about one percent of the population speak Portuguese as a first language but almost a quarter of Mozambicans are bilingual in Portuguese and an African language. Some Mozambicans speak more than one indigenous Mozambican language. Portuguese is the language of prestige, the language of education, government and administration. Mozambican languages have no official status. Small minority groups speaking Asian languages also exist.

Namibia

Namibia (formerly South West Africa) gained independence from South Africa in 1990. Before independence, English and Afrikaans were the official languages, while German had semi-official status within the administration of whites. Since independence, English has been the sole official language.

In 1995, the estimated population of Namibia was 1.6 million. Several African languages are spoken, and also English, Afrikaans, German and some Portuguese. The chief lingua franca of the central and southern areas is Afrikaans. In the Caprivi area, the main lingua franca is Lozi, a language also spoken in Zambia. Oshivambo is the first language of over half the population.

Before independence, the educational system made use of students' mother tongue as a medium of instruction in the first three years of school, subsequently transferring to English or Afrikaans. Since independence, English has been promoted as a language of national unity and of wider communication, and is the only medium of instruction in schools, with the major indigenous languages being studied as subjects until the end of the primary school phase.

The Republic of Niger, which gained independence from France in 1960, had an estimated population of 9.28 million in 1995. Ten indigenous languages are spoken in Niger, and they all have the status of national languages. The majority language and the main lingua franca is Hausa, spoken as a first language by about 53 percent of the population, and as a second language by about a further 30 percent. Other widely spoken languages are Songhai-Zerma, spoken by 21 percent, Tamashiqt, the Berber variety of the Tuareg nomads, spoken by 11 percent, Fufulde (a variety of Fula), spoken by ten percent, and Kanuri, spoken by about five percent. Niger was administered by France until 1960 and French is still the official language, the language of government and administration, and all levels of education. However, less than ten percent of the population speaks, reads and writes French. Most inhabitants of Niger are biNngual in their mother tongue and another national language. The main national languages are used in adult literacy projects, radio transmissions and are taught in some primary schools.

The Federal Republic of Nigeria was administered by Britain until independence in 1960. The 1991 census indicated that the population of Nigeria was 88.5 million, but other estimates have placed it at least 100 million. The ethnic and linguistic situation in Nigeria is very varied. It is estimated that there are about 374 ethnic groups, speaking a total of over 440 languages. The largest groups are the Hausa and Fulani peoples of the north, the Yoruba of the south-west and the Igbo of the south-east. Hausa is spoken as a first language by about 20 percent of the population, and as a second language by a further estimated 20 percent. Yoruba is spoken as a first language by 25 percent and Igbo by 20 percent.

The 1979 constitution recognizes the three major indigenous languages (Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo) and stipulates that they may be used, alongside English, in the National and State assemblies. English is the official language of Nigeria, but is only spoken with some fluency by an estimated 10 to 30 percent of the population. While Hausa is the main lingua franca of the north, Nigerian Pidgin English is used as a second language by about 30 percent of population, mostly in the south, but increasingly in northern urban areas. Nigerian Pidgin English has been considered a low status form of English, but its increasing use means that it may eventually receive some kind of official recognition. Both English and African languages are used in the media. Educational policy is that the mother tongue or community language should be used in pre-primary and the first years of primary education, subsequently transferring to English. However, the great variety of languages and the fact that few of them have a written form means that this policy is difficult to implement. Many Nigerians would like to see an indigenous language as the official language of the country, but English has an advantage that it is neutral and does not exacerbate ethnic tension.

Reunion

The island of R6union is an overseas territory of France, to the south-cast of Madagascar. It was colonized by the French in the 17th century, who brought slaves from Africa to work the sugar plantations. The population of 666,000 (1995 estimate) is mainly of mixed African, Asian and French descent. There are also minority groups of Chinese, Pakistanis and Indians. French is the official language and the language of education, but a French-based Creole (called R6union Creole French) is the most widely spoken language and is gaining in status.

Rwanda

The republic of Rwanda, formerly administered by Belgium as part of Rwanda-Urundi (see Burundi), became independent in 1962. The population of Rwanda consists of three main ethnic groups, the Hutu, constiting 90 percent of the population of 8.6 million (1995), the Tutsi (nine percent) and the TWa, a pygmy people (one percent). (These figures were calculated before the

massive dislocation of population caused by the bitter ethnic conflicts of the mid-199os.) Rwanda is unusual among African nations in that almost the entire population has the same native language, Kinyarwanda. Kinyarwanda is the same language as Rundi , the majority language of Burundi. It is the Bantu language with the greatest number of speakers. A small minority in Rwanda (about four thousand) speak Hima. French, English and Kinyarwanda are the official languages, the latter being used in the first years of primary education. Swahili is used by about ten percent of the population as a lingua franca.

SAo Tome' and Principe

The Democratic Republic of SAo Tom6 and Principe consists of two main islands with a total population of 140,000 (1995 estimate). The uninhabited islands were discovered by the Portuguese in the late 15th century. They remained under Portuguese control until independence in 1975. The population of the islands is composed of descendants of African slaves brought to the island, in-migrants from Cape Verde islands and a few Europeans. Almost all the Portuguese left the islands after independence.

The official language and the medium of education is Portuguese. Varieties of a Portuguese-based Creole are widely used by about half of the population: Santomese and Angolar are spoken on Slo Tbm6 and Principense is spoken on Principe.

Senegal, a former part of French West Africa, gained its independence in 1960. Numerous languages and dialects are spoken in the country. The dominant ethnic group are the Wolof, who constitute nearly half of the population of nine million (1995 estimate). The official language of the country is French, but the six most important indigenous languages have been elevated to the status of national languages. These are Wolof, Serer,:Pulaar, Joola, Mandingo and Soninke. (The last two are varieties of Mande, a closely related group of languages widely spoken in West Africa.)

The language of administration and education (at all levels) is French, although Wolof is used in state-run nursery schools. Wolof is the main lingua franca of the country. Over 70 percent of the population can use or at least understand Wolof. In spoken contexts, Wolof can normally be used instead of French. Wolof is used as well as French in parliamentary deliberations. All six national languages and French are used in the media.

Seychelles

The Republic of the Seychelles consists of an archipelago of 92 islands and islets. The islands were under the control of France and then Britain from the 18th century, but gained their independence in 1976. Most of the population of around 73,000 are of mixed European, Asian and African descent. At least 95 percent of the population speak a French-based creole, known as Seychelles Creole French, which replaced English and French as the official language in 1981. Creole, English and French are all used in the National Assembly, in newspapers, radio and television. English is the main language used in schools, but Creole has been increasingly used as a medium of instruction since the 1980s. Also, the Catholic church has tended to make increasing use of Creole instead of French.

Sierra Leone

The Republic of Sierra Leone became independent from Britain in 1961. Eighteen languages are spoken in the country. Three main indigenous languages are spoken as first and second languages. Speakers of Mende (a Mande variety) in the south and east number about 30 percent of the total population of 4.75 million (1995 estimate). Temne is spoken by the other major ethnic group in the West. Krio, an English-based Creole, is spoken by the descendants of freed Black African slaves. In 1787, opponents of the slave trade founded a colony for freed slaves, Freetown, now the country's capital. By 1850, more than 50,000 former slaves had settled there. Krio is spoken as a first language by only two percent of the country's population, but is widely used in Sierra Leone as a lingua franca and trade language. The official language is English, used in government, business, administration, broadcasting, journalism and education. Attempts to use the main indigenous languages in education failed because of lack of printed curriculum materials, including dictionaries and grammars.

Because of social mobility and density of population, there is considerable language contact in Sierra Leone, resulting in widespread bilingualism and multilingualism. Many speakers of minority languages are bilingual in the mother tongue and one of the major indigenous languages, Krio, Temne or Mende. Many educated people also speak English. Arabic is used as a religious language by Muslims and also for some business and trade.

Somalia

The Somali Democratic Republic was formerly under both British and Italian colonial rule, but gained its independence in 1960. Ethnic Somalis constitute 98 percent of the country's population of 7.3 million (1995 estimate) and more or less the entire population speaks Somali. Some minority languages are spoken by small groups, but these languages have no official status and their speakers typically speak Somali as well.

In 1972, the government made Somali the official language of the country. A standard form was recognized, based on the northern dialect group and a written convention was established, using the Roman alphabet.

Arabic is the national language of the country. The majority of the population of Somalia are Muslims, and the country maintains close links with the Arab world. Somali is the language of the media and of education. Arabic is the most important second language in schools, while English and Italian are also taught.

South Africa

The Republic of South Africa has a total population of about 45 million (1995 estimate). According to 1995 estimates, the majority of the population (75 percent) were black African, 13.6 percent were white, 2.6 percent were Indian and 8.6 were of mixed race. Over half the white population are Afrikaners, descendants of Dutch settlers with a strong French and German element. According to 1993 official estimates, Afrikaans was the first language of 14.5 percent of the population, comprising almost all Afrikaners and many of those of mixed ethnic origin. English was the first language of 8.4 percent, comprising most other whites, and also some Asian, mixed race and black South Africans. Seventy-three percent spoke one of the nine official African languages as their mother tongues. Four percent spoke a vanet~of other languages, including Indian languages (such as Gujarati), Chinese, and European languages such as Portuguese.

Until 1993, English and Afrikaans were the only two official languages of South Africa. In 1993, the new constitution designated the nine most prominent African languages as joint official languages, although the -use of English and Afrikaans still tends to predominate. The table below shows the nine official African languages and the number of their first language speakers as percentages of the total population. The nine African languages. are all majority languages in different regions, and the new language policy allows for a regional or territorial bias in their official status and usage. However, the policy may be revised and refined to take account of the more complex, multilingual situation in the major urban areas.

Because of the multilingual nature of South Africa, bilingualism and multilingualism are commonplace, especially among non-Whites. Afrikaans or English are the main languages of education, so first language speakers of these two languages receive their education in their mother tongue. Black African children are generally educated in their home language or one of the official African languages for the first four years of primary education, switching to English afterwards.

English and Afrikaans still predominate as the main languages of government but provision has been made for using the official African languages.

Sudan

The Republic of the Sudan is the largest country in Africa. Between 1898 and 1956 it was under joint British and Egyptian control. The country became an independent republic in 1956 and has a population of just over 30 million (1995 estimate). The inhabitants of the northern two-thirds of the country are mainly Muslims of mixed Arab and African ancestry. Other ethnic groups in Northern Sudan include the Beja, Jamala and Nubian people. About 60 languages are spoken in the northern areas, but most people also speak Arabic, the official language of the country. (About 50 percent of the total population of Sudan speak Arabic as a first language.) As in many other Arabic countries, a complex diglossic situation exists. Classical Arabic is used mainly for Islamic liturgical purposes. Modern §tandard Arabic is used as the official written language and for formal spoken contexts, in government, schools, and for wider communication with other Arab nations. Sudanese Colloquial Arabic is the spoken form used orally at home and in informal contexts. An Arabic-based pidgin is also widely used in inter-ethnic communication.

The population of the Southern areas are mainly Black Africans, and about 50 minority languages are spoken in these areas. There has been considerable conflict between the Arab North and the African South. In 1972,

the Addis Ababa Accord gave the three provinces of the Southern Region autonomy on most internal matters and established English as the working language of the region. Arabic is the official language of schools in the country, except in the Southern Region where English is used in many schools at all levels. The Southern Africans of the Sudan have a great loyalty to English and resist the encroachment of the Arabic language.

The Sudan government is encouraging the Arabization of the country, but has a policy of maintaining minority languages. The Addis Ababa Accord designated nine of the most important minority languages for priority in development. Multilingualism is common in the Sudan, especially in urban areas. Urban dwellers in the south might typically speak the mother tongue, another vernacular, Sudanese Pidgin Arabic and English.

Swaziland

The Kingdom of Swaziland became independent of Britain in 1968, and has a population of 967,000 (1995 estimate). More than 90 percent of the population are ethnic Swazi and speak Swati, a Bantu language. The official languages are English and Swati. English is the official medium of instruction in schools from the third year of primary schooling, with Swati being taught as a subject from then onwards. Both languages are used in government, administration and religion. Minority languages spoken include Tsonga and Zulu.

Tanzania

Tanzania became independent in 1961 and comprises the union of the two former British-administered countries of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. About 120 indigenous languages are spoken in Tanzania, almost all members of the Bantu language family.

In Tanzania, both Swahili and English are official languages. However, since independence, Swahili has been strongly promoted as the national language, and increasingly used instead of English (see page 124). Less than ten percent of the 28.7 million population of Tanzania (1995 estimate) speak Swahili as a mother tongue. However, almost all the remaining 90 percent now speak Swahili as a second language.

Swahili is used as the medium of primary education. In the eighth grade, children begin to learn English. Thus Tanzanians who complete secondary schooling are likely to be trilingual in their ethnic language, Swahili and English. The language shift is towards bilingualism in Swahili and English, and against the maintenance of ethnic community languages. There are 13 other main ethnic languages. Sukuma is spoken as a first language by about 13 percent of the population, to the south-east of Lake Victoria. It is closely related to Nyamwezi, spoken in much of the east of the countrv by another five percent. Eleven other major Bantu languages are spoken by between three to six percent of the population.

The Republic of Togo was formerly administered by France, and became independent in 1960. The population of approximately 4.4 million (1995 estimate) comprises some 35 ethnic groups, speaking over 40 langua2es and dialects.

French is the official language of Togo, used in government, administration, education and commerce, but is spoken by only 30 percent of the population. Two indigenous languages, Ewe and Kabye, have the status of national languages and are used alongside French in the schools. Most Togolese are bilingual or multilingual, typically speaking their own native language or dialect, at least one language of wider communication, and also French if learnt at school. The Mina dialect of Ewe is the main lingua franca of Togo and is spoken as a first or second language by over 60 percent of the population. Kabye and Dagomba are widely spoken in the north. Four languages are used in adult literacy: Ewe, Tem, Kabye and Ben (a Mande variety). Hausa and Tem, used by nomads, can also be classed as lingua francas. Local Togolese languages are used in kindergartens.

Tunisia

The Republic of Tunisia gained its independence from France in 1956. The Tunisians are of mixed Arab and Berber descent, althou ~h only two percent of the population of almost 8.9 million (1995 estimate) speak Berber dialects. (Most Berber speakers also speak Arabic.) A diglossic situation exists in Tunisia, as in other Arabicspeaking countries. Modern Standard Arabic is the official language, used in formal, public and written contexts. Colloquial varieties of Arabic are spoken as a first language and in informal contexts by almost 98 percent of the population. French is still widely spoken, mainly by educated people. French is taught from the second year of primary school and is used as a teaching medium for most scientific subjects in higher education. Italian is increasingly spoken and understood through the media, and more people are learning English, because of its importance as a world language.

The Republic of Uganda, a former British colony, gained independence in 1962. Over 40 African languages are spoken by a population of 19.5 million (1995 estimate). Luganda is the most prominent African language spoken in Uganda. It is spoken as a first language by about a third of the population, and as a second language by another third. It is the main lingua franca of the south. English, the official language, is spoken as a second language by over 30 percent of Ugandans, and is the first language of some educated urban dwellers. Swahili, the main trade language, is spoken as a second language by over 20 percent of Ugandans. Many other Ugandans have some minimal competence in either English or Swahili or both. Swahili is the language of the security forces and has been promoted as a possible national language. The use of local languages is supported by the government. The official policy is to use local languages as media of instruction in primary education, but in practice, English or one of the regional languages is more often used.

Zaire

The Republic of Zaire, formerly the Belgian Congo, gained its independence from Belgium in 1960. It is estimated that the population of 44 million (1995 estimate) consists of more than 200 ethnic groups, speaking more than 400 language varieties. (The majority are Bantu languages, and many are closely related, making it difficult to distinguish between dialects and separate languages.)

French is the official language of Zaire, used in govemment, education and business. Four African languages are widely spoken both as first languages and as lingua francas: Swahili in the east and south, Kikongo Kituba) in the west, Tshiluba in Kasai, and Lingala along the Congo river. The World Bank (1987) provided estimated percentages of the total population using these four languages as mother tongues and second languages, and this is presented in a graph.

Lingala enjoys prestige as the language of the capital city, the army and national radio, and its use seems to be spreading. The regional languages are used as the media of education for the first two years of primary school, with a subsequent transition to French.

Zambia

The Republic of Zambia, formerly Northern Rhodesia, was under British control until independence in 1964. The population of 9.4 million (1995 estimate) comprises more than 70 ethnic groups, and about 25 to 30 Bantu language varieties are spoken. These have been classed to 16 separate languages or language clusters. English s the official language of Zambia. It is the language of government, business, and education. English is spoken s a first language by less than one percent of the population, and as a second language by only 30 percent, chiefly an educated elite. Seven African languages also have official status in the country: Bemba, Lozi, Tonga,

Luvale, Nyanja, Kaonde and Lunda. Bilingualism in the mother tongue and a regional lingua franca is common in rural Zambia. In urban areas, the ability to speak three languages is common (the mother tongue, a lingua franca, and sometimes English). Bemba is the most widely used and understood Zambian language. It is spoken as a first language by 19 percent, and as a second language by 60 percent. Nyanja (also called Chewa or Chichewa) is spoken as a first language by 12 percent and as a second language by 40 percent. Nyanja is spoken by a total of ten million speakers in countries of Southern Central Africa, including Malawi, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe, formerly the British colony of Southern Rhodesia, became independent in 1965. English is the official language but is the mother tongue of no more than one percent of the estimated population of 11. 1 million (1995). About 15 indigenous African languages are spoken. Shona, a Bantu language, is the first language of approximately 75 percent of the total population. Another Bantu language, Ndebele, is spoken by over ten percent. The country also has small minorities of Europeans, Asians, and persons of mixed race.